Sex, Alcohol and Crime

The Complex and Multifaceted Relationship Between Alcohol and Crime

The relationship between alcohol and crime is a complex and multifaceted one, encompassing a variety of factors that intertwine to create a challenging social issue. Alcohol has long been recognized as a significant contributor to criminal behavior, particularly violent crimes. By understanding the ways in which alcohol influences behavior and contributes to criminal activity, and by implementing effective policies and interventions, societies can work towards reducing alcohol-related crime. This requires a comprehensive approach that includes regulation, education, and support services to address the root causes and effects of this intertwined relationship.

Alcohol's Influence on Behavior

Alcohol consumption affects the brain in ways that can significantly alter behavior. It impairs judgment, reduces inhibitions, and increases aggression. These changes can lead individuals to engage in risky or violent behaviors that they might otherwise avoid. For example, alcohol can impair judgment, causing individuals to misjudge situations and make poor decisions. Increased aggression, a common effect of alcohol, can escalate minor disagreements into violent altercations. Furthermore, alcohol's ability to reduce inhibitions can lead individuals to act impulsively, engaging in criminal activities without considering the consequences.

Alcohol's Influence on Behavior

Alcohol consumption significantly affects the brain and can alter behavior in several key ways:

Impaired Judgment

Alcohol impairs the brain's ability to process information and make rational decisions. This impairment affects the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for executive functions such as decision-making, problem-solving, and impulse control. When judgment is impaired:

Risk Assessment: Individuals may underestimate the dangers of certain actions, leading to risky behaviors such as drinking and driving, initiating fights, or engaging in unsafe sexual practices.

Decision Making: Alcohol can cause individuals to make poor decisions, such as reacting violently to a minor provocation or attempting to settle disputes through physical confrontation.

Reduced Inhibitions

Alcohol reduces inhibitions by affecting the brain's limbic system, which is involved in emotional regulation and social behavior. This reduction in inhibitions can lead to:

Impulsive Actions: Individuals may act on impulses without considering the consequences, such as picking fights, vandalizing property, or engaging in other criminal activities.

Lowered Social Restraints: People may say or do things they would normally avoid, leading to socially inappropriate or aggressive behavior. For example, they might confront strangers or engage in public disturbances.

Increased Aggression

Alcohol can increase aggression by altering the balance of neurotransmitters in the brain. This increase in aggression is linked to:

Heightened Emotional Response: Alcohol can amplify emotions like anger and frustration, making individuals more likely to lash out violently. A small argument can quickly escalate into a physical fight.

Lowered Fear Response: The natural fear of consequences is diminished, leading individuals to engage in aggressive behavior without considering the potential repercussions, such as legal consequences or injury to themselves or others.

Additional Factors

Several additional factors can influence how alcohol affects behavior:

Personality Traits: Individuals with certain personality traits, such as high levels of impulsivity or a tendency toward aggression, may be more susceptible to alcohol's behavior-altering effects.

Environmental Context: The environment in which alcohol is consumed can also play a role. For instance, crowded bars or parties with high levels of intoxication can create situations where aggressive behavior is more likely to occur.

Cultural and Social Norms: Societal attitudes toward alcohol and behavior can influence how individuals act when intoxicated. In some cultures, heavy drinking and aggressive behavior may be more socially accepted or expected.

The influence of alcohol on behavior is complex and multifaceted. It impairs judgment, reduces inhibitions, and increases aggression, leading to a higher likelihood of engaging in risky or violent behaviors. Understanding these effects is crucial for developing effective policies and interventions to reduce alcohol-related crime and promote safer communities. By addressing both the individual and societal factors that contribute to alcohol-related behavior, we can work towards mitigating the negative impacts of alcohol consumption on behavior and public safety.

Types of Crimes Associated with Alcohol

Several types of crimes are commonly associated with alcohol consumption. Violent crimes, such as assault, domestic violence, and homicide, are often linked to alcohol use. Studies have shown that a significant proportion of violent offenders were intoxicated at the time of their crimes. Public order offenses, including disorderly conduct, vandalism, and public intoxication, are also frequently related to alcohol consumption, especially in areas with high concentrations of bars and nightclubs. Sexual assault is another area where alcohol plays a significant role; it can be used to incapacitate victims, and perpetrators often exploit situations where alcohol is present to commit their crimes.

Types of Crimes Associated with Alcohol

Violent Crimes

1. Assault: Alcohol consumption is a common factor in assault cases. Individuals under the influence of alcohol are more likely to become aggressive and engage in physical altercations. Alcohol impairs judgment and increases aggression, leading to a higher likelihood of assaults occurring.

2. Domestic Violence: Alcohol is frequently involved in cases of domestic violence. It can exacerbate tensions within relationships, leading to verbal and physical abuse. Studies have shown that a significant proportion of domestic violence incidents involve at least one party being intoxicated.

3. Homicide: Alcohol-related homicides are a severe consequence of alcohol consumption. Intoxicated individuals may act violently without fully understanding the consequences, leading to fatal outcomes. In many cases, both the victim and the perpetrator may have been drinking.

Public Order Offenses

1. Disorderly Conduct: Public disorder, such as shouting, fighting, and causing disturbances, is often linked to alcohol consumption. Areas with high concentrations of bars and nightclubs are particularly prone to these offenses, as large groups of intoxicated individuals can create chaotic environments.

2. Vandalism: Alcohol-fueled behavior can lead to property damage and vandalism. Individuals under the influence may engage in destructive activities, such as breaking windows, defacing property, or damaging vehicles, often without regard for the consequences.

3. Public Intoxication: Public intoxication is a common offense in areas where alcohol is readily available. Intoxicated individuals may become a danger to themselves and others, leading to arrests and fines. Law enforcement agencies often have to manage the consequences of public drinking, such as disorderly behavior and accidents.

Sexual Assault

1. Incapacitation of Victims: Alcohol is a significant factor in many sexual assault cases. Perpetrators may use alcohol to incapacitate their victims, making it easier to commit the crime. Victims who have consumed alcohol are less able to resist or recall the events, complicating legal proceedings.

2. **Exploitation of Situations**: Perpetrators often exploit situations where alcohol is present to commit sexual assault. Social settings such as parties, bars, and clubs, where alcohol consumption is prevalent, provide opportunities for offenders to take advantage of intoxicated individuals.

3. Reduced Inhibitions: Alcohol reduces inhibitions and impairs judgment, making it more likely for individuals to engage in non-consensual sexual activity. This can lead to situations where consent is not clearly communicated or respected, resulting in sexual assault.

The types of crimes associated with alcohol consumption are diverse and complex, spanning violent crimes, public order offenses, and sexual assault. The common thread is alcohol's ability to impair judgment, reduce inhibitions, and increase aggression, leading to criminal behavior that might not occur otherwise. Understanding the specific ways in which alcohol contributes to these crimes is crucial for developing effective policies and interventions to reduce alcohol-related crime. By addressing the root causes and implementing targeted measures, societies can work towards creating safer environments and reducing the incidence of these crimes.

Societal and Economic Factors

Societal and economic factors also play a crucial role in the relationship between alcohol and crime. The availability and accessibility of alcohol are significant factors; areas with high densities of alcohol outlets tend to experience higher rates of alcohol-related crime. Policies that limit the number of alcohol-selling establishments and restrict trading hours can help mitigate this issue. Economic stress, such as unemployment and financial difficulties, can lead to increased alcohol consumption, which in turn can contribute to higher crime rates. Individuals facing economic hardships may turn to alcohol as a coping mechanism, leading to an escalation in criminal behavior.

Societal and Economic Factors Influencing Alcohol-Related Crime

Availability and Accessibility of Alcohol

Density of Alcohol Outlets: Areas with a high concentration of bars, liquor stores, and other alcohol-selling establishments tend to experience higher rates of alcohol-related crime. The easy availability of alcohol in these areas increases consumption rates and, consequently, the likelihood of crime. Research has shown that reducing the density of alcohol outlets can lead to a significant decrease in alcohol-related violence and public disorder.

Trading Hours: Extended trading hours for alcohol sales are associated with increased alcohol consumption and related crimes. When alcohol is available late into the night, individuals have more opportunities to drink excessively, leading to heightened aggression and impaired judgment. Policies that restrict the hours during which alcohol can be sold can help reduce these incidents.

Regulatory Policies: Effective regulation of alcohol sales, such as age restrictions and licensing requirements, can mitigate the impact of alcohol on crime rates. Strict enforcement of these regulations is crucial to prevent underage drinking and reduce alcohol-related criminal activities.

Economic Stress and Alcohol Consumption

Unemployment and Financial Difficulties: Economic hardships, such as unemployment and financial strain, can lead to increased alcohol consumption as individuals seek to cope with stress and anxiety. This increased consumption can, in turn, lead to higher crime rates. Studies have shown a correlation between economic downturns and rises in alcohol-related crime, particularly violent offenses and public disorder.

Coping Mechanism: For many individuals facing economic difficulties, alcohol becomes a coping mechanism to deal with stress, depression, and feelings of hopelessness. This reliance on alcohol can exacerbate existing problems and lead to criminal behavior. For example, financial strain can increase the likelihood of domestic violence, as stress and frustration are amplified by alcohol consumption.

Social Support and Community Resources: Access to social support and community resources can mitigate the negative impact of economic stress on alcohol consumption and crime. Programs that provide financial assistance, job training, and mental health services can help individuals cope with economic hardships without resorting to alcohol. Community support networks can also play a crucial role in reducing alcohol-related crime by offering alternative coping strategies and interventions.

Policy Implications and Interventions

Restrictive Policies: Implementing policies that limit the number of alcohol outlets and restrict trading hours can help reduce the availability of alcohol and, consequently, alcohol-related crime. These policies should be based on thorough research and tailored to the specific needs of communities.

Economic Support Programs: Providing economic support and resources to individuals facing financial difficulties can reduce the likelihood of alcohol abuse and related crimes. Job training programs, financial counseling, and mental health services can offer valuable support and help individuals navigate economic challenges without resorting to alcohol.

Public Awareness Campaigns: Education and awareness campaigns about the dangers of excessive drinking and the link between alcohol and crime can help reduce consumption rates. These campaigns should target both individuals and communities, promoting responsible drinking habits and highlighting the importance of seeking help for alcohol dependency.

Community-Based Interventions: Community-based interventions that address the root causes of alcohol-related crime, such as social and economic disparities, can be effective in reducing crime rates. These interventions should involve collaboration between law enforcement, healthcare providers, social services, and community organizations to create a comprehensive approach to tackling alcohol-related issues.

Societal and economic factors play a crucial role in the relationship between alcohol and crime. By addressing the availability and accessibility of alcohol, providing economic support, and implementing targeted policies and interventions, societies can work towards reducing alcohol-related crime. A comprehensive approach that includes regulation, education, and support services is essential to mitigate the impact of these factors and create safer communities.

Policy Implications and Interventions

Addressing the intertwined nature of alcohol and crime requires a multifaceted approach. Implementing restrictive alcohol policies can have a significant impact on reducing alcohol-related crime. For example, increasing the price of alcohol through taxes can reduce consumption rates, while restricting trading hours and limiting the number of alcohol outlets can decrease the availability of alcohol and reduce crime. Education and awareness campaigns about the dangers of excessive drinking and the link between alcohol and crime can also be effective in reducing consumption and associated crimes. Support services for individuals struggling with alcohol dependency are crucial, as they provide the necessary assistance to help individuals overcome their addiction and reduce the likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior.

Restrictive Alcohol Policies

Increasing Alcohol Prices: Implementing higher taxes on alcoholic beverages can make them more expensive, which tends to reduce consumption. Studies have shown that price increases are particularly effective in reducing heavy drinking and alcohol-related harm among young people and low-income individuals. This measure can help decrease overall alcohol consumption and, consequently, alcohol-related crime.

Restricting Trading Hours: Limiting the hours during which alcohol can be sold can reduce the availability of alcohol, especially during late-night hours when many alcohol-related crimes occur. Policies that mandate earlier closing times for bars, nightclubs, and liquor stores have been associated with reductions in violent crimes, such as assaults and public disorder.

Limiting the Number of Alcohol Outlets: Reducing the density of alcohol-selling establishments in a given area can lower alcohol availability and consumption rates. By controlling the number of licenses issued and the locations of alcohol outlets, authorities can mitigate the risk of alcohol-related crime. Research indicates that areas with fewer alcohol outlets experience lower rates of violence and other alcohol-related offenses.

Education and Awareness Campaigns

Public Awareness Campaigns: Educating the public about the dangers of excessive drinking and the link between alcohol and crime can change social norms and behaviors. Awareness campaigns can target various demographics, including young adults, parents, and community leaders, to promote responsible drinking habits and highlight the consequences of alcohol-related crime.

School-Based Programs: Implementing alcohol education programs in schools can help prevent underage drinking and reduce future alcohol-related crime. These programs can teach students about the risks associated with alcohol consumption and provide them with the skills to make healthy choices. Peer education and involvement of community role models can enhance the effectiveness of these programs.

Community Outreach: Engaging community organizations, religious groups, and local businesses in promoting awareness about alcohol-related issues can create a supportive environment for reducing consumption and crime. Community outreach initiatives can include workshops, seminars, and public forums to discuss the impact of alcohol on crime and explore solutions.

Support Services for Alcohol Dependency

Addiction Treatment Programs: Providing access to addiction treatment and rehabilitation services is crucial for individuals struggling with alcohol dependency. These programs can offer medical, psychological, and social support to help individuals overcome their addiction and reduce the likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior. Effective treatment programs should include counseling, medication-assisted treatment, and aftercare support.

Mental Health Services: Addressing underlying mental health issues that contribute to alcohol dependency can be an essential component of reducing alcohol-related crime. Integrating mental health services with addiction treatment can help individuals develop coping strategies and improve their overall well-being. Providing support for co-occurring disorders, such as depression and anxiety, can also reduce the risk of relapse and criminal activity.

Social Support Networks: Establishing strong social support networks can help individuals in recovery maintain sobriety and avoid criminal behavior. Support groups, community centers, and peer mentoring programs can offer a sense of belonging and accountability. Encouraging family involvement and providing resources for family members can also enhance the effectiveness of recovery efforts.

Implementing a comprehensive approach to address the relationship between alcohol and crime involves a combination of restrictive policies, education and awareness campaigns, and support services for individuals struggling with alcohol dependency. By increasing alcohol prices, restricting trading hours, and limiting the number of alcohol outlets, societies can reduce the availability and consumption of alcohol. Education and awareness campaigns can change social norms and behaviors, while support services can provide the necessary assistance to help individuals overcome addiction and reduce the likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior. A multifaceted strategy that addresses both the root causes and effects of alcohol-related crime is essential for creating safer and healthier communities.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the relationship between alcohol and crime is a complex and multifaceted issue that requires a comprehensive approach to address effectively. By understanding the ways in which alcohol influences behavior and contributes to criminal activity, and by implementing effective policies and interventions, societies can work towards reducing alcohol-related crime. This approach must include regulation, education, and support services to tackle the root causes and effects of this intertwined relationship. Only through a concerted and multifaceted effort can we hope to reduce the impact of alcohol-related crime on individuals and communities.

References

Alterman, A. I., Gerstley, L. J., Strohmetz, D. B., & McKay, J. R. (1991). Psychiatric heterogeneity in antisocial alcoholics: Relation to familial alcoholism. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 32(5), 423–431.

Article

 

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Amir, M. (1971). Patterns in forcible rape. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Google Scholar

 

Banay, R. S. (1942). Alcoholism and crime. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 2, 686–716.

Google Scholar

 

Banay, R. S. (1945). Alcohol and aggression. In E. M. Jellinek (Ed.), Alcohol, science, and society (pp. 143–152). New Haven, CT: Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol.

Google Scholar

 

Bard, M., & Zacker, J. (1974). Assaultiveness and alcohol use in family disputes: Police perceptions. Criminology, 12 [3 (November)], 281–292.

Article

 

Google Scholar

 

Blumstein, A., Cohen, J., Roth, J. A., & Visher, C. A. (Eds.), (1986). Criminal careers and “career criminals.” Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Google Scholar

 

Bohman, M., Cloninger, C. R., Sigvardsson, S., & von Knorring, A. (1982). Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 1233–1241.

Article

 

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Bohman, M., Cloninger, C. R., Sigvardsson, S., & von Knorring, A. (1983). Gene-environment interaction in the psychopathology of Swedish adoptees: Studies of the origins of alcoholism and criminality. In S. B. Guze, F. J. Earls, & J. E. Barrett (Eds.), Childhood psychopathology and development (pp. 265–278). New York: Raven Press.

Google Scholar

 

Collins, J. J., Jr. (1981). Alcohol careers and criminal careers. In J. J. Collins (Ed.), Drinking and crime (pp. 152–206). New York: Guilford Press.

Google Scholar

 

Cordilia, A. (1985). Alcohol and property crime: Exploring the causal nexus. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 46(2), 161–171.

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Donovan, J. E., & Jessor, R. (1985). Structure of problem behavior in adolescence and young adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53(6), 890–904.

Article

 

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Dunford, E. (1945). Legal aspects of prohibition. In E. M. Jellinek (Ed.), Alcohol, science and society (pp. 321–353). New Haven, CT: Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol.

Google Scholar

 

Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Menard, S. (1989). Multiple problem youth. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Book

 

Google Scholar

 

Ewing J., & Rouse, B. A. (1970). Identifying the hidden alcoholic. Paper presented at the 29th International Congress on Alcohol and Drug Dependence, Sydney, NSW Australia.

Google Scholar

 

Fagan, J. (1990). Intoxication and aggression. In M. Tonry & J. Q. Wilson (Eds.), Drugs and crime (pp. 241–320). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Google Scholar

 

Farrington, D. P. (1979). Environmental stress, delinquent behavior, and convictions. In I. G. Sarason & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Stress and anxiety, Vol. 6 (pp. 93–106). New York: John Wiley.

Google Scholar

 

Farrington, D. P. (1983). Offending from 10 to 25 years of age. In K. T. Van Dusen & S. A. Mednick (Eds.), Prospective studies of crime and delinquency (pp. 73–97). Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff.

Google Scholar

 

Farrington, D. P. (1986). Stepping stones to adult criminal careers. In D. Olweus, J. Block, & M. Radke-Yarrow (Eds.), Development of antisocial and prosocial behavior (pp. 359–384). New York: Academic Press.

Google Scholar

 

Ferri, E. (1897). Criminal sociology. New York: D. Appleton.

Google Scholar

 

Flanagan, T. J., & Maguire, K. (1992). Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics 1991. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Google Scholar

 

Foulds, G. A., & Hassall, C. (1969). The significance of age of onset of excessive drinking in male alcoholics. British Journal of Psychiatry, 115, 1027–1032.

Article

 

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Gantner, A. B., & Taylor, S. P. (1982). Human physical aggression as a function of alcohol and threat of harm. Aggressive Behavior, 18(1), 29–36.

Article

 

Google Scholar

 

Gerson, L. W., & Preston, D. Q. (1979). Alcohol consumption and the incidence of violent crime. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 40(3), 307–312.

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Goodman, R. A., Mercy, J. A., Loya, F., Rosenberg, M. L., Smith, J. C., Allen, N. H., Vargas, L., & Kolts, R. (1986). Alcohol use and interpersonal violence: Alcohol detected in homocide victims. American Journal of Public Health, 76(2), 144–149.

Article

 

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Goring, C. (1913). The English convict: A statistical study. London: Stationary Office (available from Montclair, NJ: Paterson Smith).

Google Scholar

 

Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Google Scholar

 

Gustafson, R. (1992). Alcohol and aggression—a replication study controlling for potential confounding variables. Aggressive Behavior, 18(1), 21–28.

Article

 

Google Scholar

 

Guze, S. B. (1976). Criminality and psychiatric disorders. New York: Oxford University Press.

Google Scholar

 

Harwood, M. K., & Leonard, K. E. (1989). Family history of alcoholism, youthful antisocial behavior and problem drinking among DWI offenders. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 50(3), 210–216.

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Hesseibrock, V. M., Stabenau, J. R., Hesseibrock, M. N., Roger, E., & Babor, T. F. (1982). The nature of alcoholism in patients with different family histories for alcoholism. Progress in Neuro-psychopharmacological & Biological Psychiatry, 6, 607–614.

Article

 

Google Scholar

 

Howard, G. E. (1918). Alcohol and crime: A study in social causation. American Journal of Sociology, 24, 61–80.

Article

 

Google Scholar

 

Innes, C. A., & Greenfeld, L. A. (1990). Violent state prisoners and their victims. BJS Special Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

Google Scholar

 

Jessor, R., & Jessor, S. L. (1984). Adolescence to young adulthood: A twelve-year prospective study of problem behavior and psychosocial development. In S. A. Mednick, M. Harway, and K. M. Finello (Eds.), Handbook of longitudinal research (pp. 34–61). New York: Praeger.

Google Scholar

 

Jones, M. C. (1968). Personality correlates and antecedents of drinking patterns in adult males. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 32, 2–12.

Article

 

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Kaplan, H. B. (1980). Deviant behavior in defense of self. New York: Academic Press.

Google Scholar

 

Kaplan, H. B., Johnson, R. J., & Bailey, C. A. (1986). Self-rejection and the explanation of deviance: Refinement and elaboration of a latent structure. Social Psychology Quarterly, 49, 110–128.

Article

 

Google Scholar

 

Kaplan, H. B., Johnson, R. J., & Bailey, C. A. (1987). Deviant peers and deviant behavior: Further elaboration of a model. Social Psychology Quarterly, 50(3), 211–284.

Article

 

Google Scholar

 

Lewis, C. E., Rice, J., & Heizer, J. E. (1983). Diagnostic interactions: Alcoholism and antisocial personality. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 171(2), 105–113.

Article

 

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Lindelius, R., & Salum, I. (1973). Alcoholism and criminality. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 49, 306–314.

Article

 

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Lombroso, C. (1912/1968). Crime: Its causes and remedies. Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith.

Google Scholar

 

Mayfield, D., McLeod, G., & Hall, P. (1974). The CAGE questionnaire: Validation of a new alcoholism screening instrument. American Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 1121–1123.

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

McCord, J. (1980). Patterns of deviance. In S. B. Sells, R. Crandall, M. Roff, J. Strauss, & W. Pollin (Eds.), Human functioning in longitudinal perspective: Studies of normal and psychopathological populations (pp. 157–162). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

Google Scholar

 

McCord, J. (1981a). A longitudinal perspective on patterns of crime. Criminology, 19(2), 211–218.

Article

 

Google Scholar

 

McCord, J. (1981b). Alcoholism and criminality: Confounding and differentiating factors. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 42(9), 739–748.

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

McCord, W., & McCord, J. (1960). Origins of alcoholism. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Google Scholar

 

McKenna, T., & Pickens, R. (1981). Alcoholic children of alcoholics. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 42, 1021–1029.

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

McKenna, T., & Pickens, R. (1983). Personality characteristics of alcoholic children of alcoholics. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 44, 688–700.

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Murdoch, D., & Pihl, R. O. (1985). Alcohol and aggression in a group interaction. Addictive Behaviors, 10, 97–101.

Article

 

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Murdoch, D., Pihl, R. O., & Ross, D. (1990). Alcohol and crimes of violence: Present issues. International Journal of the Addictions, 25(9), 1065–1081.

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Nicol, A. R., Gunn, J. C., Gristwood, J., Foggitt, R. H., & Watson, J. P. (1973). The relationship of alcoholism to violent behavior resulting in long-term imprisonment. British Journal of Psychiatry, 123, 47–51.

Article

 

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Osgood, D. W., Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. G. (1988). The generality of deviance in late adolescence and early adulthood. American Sociological Review, 53(1), 81–93.

Article

 

Google Scholar

 

Pernanen, K. (1981). Theoretical aspects of the relationship between alcohol use and crime. In J. J. Collins, Jr. (Ed.), Drinking and crime (pp. 1–69). New York: Guilford Press.

Google Scholar

 

Pernanen, K. (1991). Alcohol in human violence. New York: Guilford Press.

Google Scholar

 

Powers, E., & Witmer, H. (1951). An experiment in the prevention of delinquency: The Cambridge-Somerville youth study. New York: Columbia University Press.

Google Scholar

 

Pulkkinen, L., & Hurme, H. (1984). Aggression as a predictor of weak self-control. In L. Pulkkinen & P. Lyytinen (Eds.), Human action and personality. Jyvaskyla, Finland: University of Jyvaskyla Press.

Google Scholar

 

Robins, L. N. (1978). Sturdy childhood predictors of adult antisocial behavior: Replications from longitudinal studies. Psychological Medicine, 8, 611–622.

Article

 

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Schuckit, M. A. (1973). Alcoholism and sociopathy—Diagnostic confusion. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 34, 157–164.

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Schuckit, M. A. (1984). Relationship between the course of primary alcoholism in men and family history. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 45, 334–338.

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Schuckit, M. A., Rimmer, J. R., & Winokur, G. (1970). Alcoholism: Antisocial traits in male alcoholics. British Journal of Psychiatry, 117, 575–576.

Article

 

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Shupe, L. M. (1954). Alcohol and crime: A study of the urine alcohol concentration found in 882 persons arrested during or immediately after the commission of a felony. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 44(5), 661–664.

Article

 

Google Scholar

 

Smith, S. S., & Newman, J. P. (1990). Alcohol and drug abuse/dependence disorders in psychopathic and nonpsychopathic criminal offenders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94(4), 430–439.

Article

 

Google Scholar

 

Stabenau, J. R. (1984). Implications of family history of alcoholism, antisocial personality, and sex differences in alcohol dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141 [10 (October)], 1178–1182.

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

van Kammen, W. B., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1991). Substance use and its relationship to conduct problems and delinquency in young boys. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20(4), 399–415.

Article

 

Google Scholar

 

Virkkunen, M. (1974). Alcohol as a factor precipitating aggression and conflict behavior leading to homicide. British Journal of Addictions, 69, 149–154.

Article

 

Google Scholar

 

Wikström, P. H. (1985). Everyday violence in contemporary Sweden: Situational and ecological aspects. Stockholm: National Council for Crime Prevention Sweden.

Google Scholar

 

Wolfgang, M. E. (1958). Patterns in criminal homicide. New York: John Wiley.

Google Scholar

 

Wolfgang, M. E., & Strohm, M. A. (1956). The relationship between alcohol and criminal homicide. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 17[3 (September)], 411–425.

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Wolfgang, M. E., Figlio, R. M., & Sellin, T. (1972). Delinquency in a birth cohort. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Google Scholar

 

Yates, W. R., Petty, F., & Brown, K. (1988). Alcoholism in males with antisocial personality disorder. International Journal of the Addictions, 23(10), 999–1010.

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Zeichner, A., & Pihl, R. O. (1979). Effects of alcohol and behavior contingencies on human aggression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88(2), 153–160.

Article

 

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Zeichner, A., & Pihl, R. O. (1980). Effects of alcohol and instigator intent on human aggression. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 41(3), 265–276.

PubMed

 

Google Scholar

 

Zucker, R. A., & Gomberg, E. S. L. (1986). Etiology of alcoholism reconsidered: The case for a biopsychosocial process. American Psychologist, 41, 783–793.